Eudora Welty’s A Worn Path: Phoenix’s Trip to the Local Town

The short story â€Å"The Worn Path† written by Eudora Welty is about an old Black woman’s trip into to the local town. The woman’s name is Phoenix and she is going to town to get medicine for her sick grandson. However, as she travels along the path Phoenix encounters several obstacles that show that along with her old age and deteriorating body her mind is slipping away from her as well. Phoenix is an elderly black woman who is charged with the task of taking the long trip through the woods and in to town.She is the only caretaker for her grandson and even though her senses and her body are starting to fail her she is still willing to take the risk. In the first part of the story Phoenix gets caught up in a thorn bush and it is not clear at first why she allowed herself to get as close to the bush as she did, but you are eventually brought to realize that her eyes are the betrayer. â€Å"I in the thorny bush,† she said. Thorns you doing your appointed wo rk. Never want to let folks pass, no sir. Old eyes thought you was a pretty little green bush† (1).This is just one of many examples of how her body along with her senses is slowly drifting away from her. While Phoenix is walking along on her journey in to the town she stops to take a break on the bank. Even though she does not chose to take a nap she still somehow manages to drift off into what some may consider and dream, or a warped sense of reality. â€Å"She did not dare to close her eyes, and when a little boy brought her a plate with a slice of marble-cake on it she spoke to him. â€Å" That would be acceptable,† she said.But when she went to take it there was just her own hand in the air† (2). It seems that the stresses of the journey along with the deteoration of her body due to old age are taking a toll on Phoenix. As Phoenix is walking through a field she spots a figure in the distance that appears to be dancing in the wind. The first thought that come s to her mind is that it is either a man or a ghost but she soon realizes that it is neither of those things. It appears that her warped sense of reality leads her to consider unrealistic things over rationality and disregard reason. Ghost,† she said sharply. â€Å"Who be you the ghost of? For I have heard of nary death close by† (2). Phoenix mind along with her eyes are constantly playing tricks on her and I think she is slowly realizing that she can no longer trust herself. After a long and challenging trip through the woods, Phoenix finally makes it into town to get medicine for her grandson. But upon arriving at the doctor’s office she completely forgets why she came. Through the trip Phoenix has been struggling to make it both mentally and physically.It appears that her age has finally caught up to her, however her dedication to her grandson still manages to overpower the unfortunate consequences of old age. â€Å"My grandson, it was my memory had left me. There I sat and forgot why I made my long trip† (5). Even though, Phoenix is old and her health is fading just as fast as her mind. Her dedication to her grandson in the end is the one thing that is able to get her through and keep her in touch with reality. She is a woman who may not always be the most physically and mentally capable still manages to have the tenacity and grit needed to make it through her hard life.

Tragic Hero: Creon or Antigone

Joachim Ogundipe English Comp 2 Tragic Hero: Antigone or Creon? In Antigone, a play written by Sophocles, the characters Creon and Antigone both fit into a few of Aristotle’s criteria. They are both choices of tragic heroes. They both are neither good nor evil in the extreme but just a man like any of us; they are both born of a better social status than most of us, and both have a tragic flaw in their characters. But even though the story is called Antigone, it is not necessary for Antigone to be the tragic hero. Other things that only Creon does that make him the tragic hero should be responsible for his downfall, the misfortune they get should be greater than what he deserves, and should also have recognition of a truth about himself. By many of Creons actions, he shows all of the characteristics of a tragic hero and fits in these descriptions perfectly. Creon fits in all of the characteristics of Aristotle’s criteria and is the tragic hero. Creon is neither good nor bad. He is not completely bad because he didn’t really want to kill Antigone. Instead, he just wanted to keep all of the laws in order to make his men follow his orders. He was just a stubborn man who wanted to show his people that he was a man of his word. Creon is the king in the play and he is definitely more powerful than the rest of the characters. Creon makes it a point to show of his pride. Self-pride is the tragic flaw Creon faces in this play. He showed so much arrogance in every decision he made. Creon insisted on punishing Antigone and would not change his mind. He is responsible for his own downfall. Even though Creon sentenced Antigone, his misfortune is way worse than hers. All he wanted was to keep his country at peace, and did not want to let people go against his laws. In conclusion, the play titled Antigone by Sophocles has Creon as the tragic hero. Creon shows all of the characteristics of a tragic hero. He is neither good nor bad in the extreme, he is in a high status than us, he receives pity through the audience, recognizes his weakness, and his downfall comes from his own self-pride. Therefore, he is definitely the tragic hero of this play.

Growing Fungi and Bacteria of Plants

Introduction There are both virulent and non-virulent bacteria and fungi that grow on plants. It is difficult to distinguish between the two without proper inspection and diagnosis of the diseased plant to know whether the bacteria or the fungus in question is the virulent or non-virulent one. Therefore pure cultures need to be isolated to know with absolute certainty which is the causative bacteria or fungus. Potato dextrose agar is a good nutrient agar for mycelia to thrive on which is present in most fungal moulds. Standard nutrient agar is a general utility used for non-fastidious microorganisms. 2 Aim The aim is to isolate fungi and bacteria colonies from diseased and healthy leaves. Materials and Methods Materials used for the experiment was two of each: standard nutrient agar plate and potato dextrose agar plate. To remove any epiphytic or saprophytic microbes from the plant surface the leaf is superficially sterilized with 100% ethanol. A scalpel to cut the leafSterile water for macerating the leaves. To isolate the fungi: Cut 5 pieces of leaf from the diseased leaf around the edges of the diseased area so it contains both healthy and diseased parts, place it on the one potato dextrose agar plate. Then cut 5 pieces from the healthy leaf and place them on the second dextrose agar plates. To isolate bacteria: Macerate both the healthy and diseased leaves separately in the sterile water and streak it onto the two separate standard nutrient agar plate.Incubate all four plates at 25? C for up to 7 days. Discussion There is growth on both the healthy and diseased agar plates for both bacteria and fungi. For the healthy fungal plate there is a single type of growth which suggests that it is a natural non-pathogenic fungus that grows on plants. On the diseased plants there are 5 different colonies of fungus from the 5 different pieces of leaves. The one area has a clear zone where the fungus has inhibited the growth of the other colonies.On the healthy bacteria l plate there is some bacterial growth which can also suggest non-pathogenic bacteria that grows on plants. On the diseased plant bacterial plate there is some bacterial growth but not a lot and still fungal growth. Conclusion The lack of bacterial colonies on the bacterial plate and the fungal growth on the same plate suggests that the disease on the plant is caused by a fungal pathogen and not a bacterial one. There are fungi and bacteria that grow on plants that are not harmful towards the plant. ?

Death Penalty in the united States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Death Penalty in the united States - Essay Example Capital punishment is essential in the legal system because punishment should be proportioned to the evil of the offense. Retribution becomes a moral obligation. The offender is to be killed by the state only because he brings death upon himself; but this dead man with a beating heart is to be treated decently right up to the point of gentle termination because he also remains a person, a rational agent of free will. Murderers had previously agreed to submit to the rule of civil authority and partake of its privileges and its responsibilities by engaging with society. Those who violate the laws have broken a trust with the citizenry, which, by exacting a penalty, seeks compensation for an act considered an affront to the purpose for which submission to civil authority was commenced (Bigel 46). The very high ratio of condemned prisoners to executions in many states-200 to 1 rather than the 40 to 1 in many northern jurisdictions- has meant that there is no longer a clear and proximate relationship between death sentences and executions. More than seven out of ten respondents regard the removal of the threat that "the killer might kill again" as an important benefit of the death penalty, but 68 percent regret that the current system results in "mistaken executions." More than six of ten respondents are concerned about the jurisdictional differences in death sentences and executions, but six of ten also think the system provides "closure" (Colson 27). This set of profoundly mixed feelings about the death penalty suggests that public responses to death penalty surveys might vary importantly by the context and the wording of questions. By contrast, the abolitionists see the impact of executions as a statement of pervasive importance about the relationship between the government and the individual. Abolitionists in the United States view capital punishment as a fundamental political issue; proponents usually assert that the question is neither fundamental nor political. From a Biblical view, Charles W. Colson, author of the essay The Death Penalty is Morally Just, notes that to be punished "is to be treated with dignity as human beings created in the Image of God" (Colson 62). The death penalty, as a punishment for murder, reaffirms a criminal's humanity by taking on responsibility for their actions. It is contrary to the idea that execution degrades a convict sentenced to death. According to van den Haag (1994), "[P]hilosophers, such as Immanuel Kant and G.F.W. Hegel have insisted that, when deserved, execution, far from degrading the executed convict, affirms his humanity by affirming his rationality and his responsibility for his actions"( 257). In spite of benefits and advantages of death penalty, there is a social pressure against this punishment. Still, the death penalty had become an exceptional punishment in all Western democracies by the start of the twentieth century, reserved for only the most serious of offenses, rarely imposed, and regarded as particularly problematic. In all the developed nations, other methods of punishment had replaced the executioner as the principal punishment for serious offenses. Executions remained a

Student Testing in Elementary Schools in America Essay

Student Testing in Elementary Schools in America - Essay Example The curriculum as of today is far ahead of what the school system was earlier. From learning by rote, now the child is allowed more interaction and freedom to gain knowledge from sources other than the school. The curriculum guides and text books are chosen today by the state and they reflect the State's learning standard and benchmarks for a given grade level. To gauge the progress of a child, there are tests to determine the adequate yearly progress which have to fulfill certain standardized goals by which States and school districts assess the child's progress academically.( Armstrong Thomas, 1987) When there are about twenty or thirty children of diverse learning needs in a class, the academic strengths and weaknesses of a child are most evident during tests. This is referred to as MAP or measures of academic progress. Tests are not an absolute indication of the child's progress or capacity for knowledge. The scoring process is a comparison of the child's responses with his or her peers. Instead of providing a statistical comparison of the child's abilities, it would be better to focus on the level of the skills that the child has acquired, instead of assessing the results of a child's test with a checklist of skills that are expected in a particular grade (Chris Shera, 2007). It is during interpretative question tests that disconnect between classroom activities and results in the end of grade tests required, is evident. Students are not empowered to study anything outside the requisite classroom curriculum. The program needs a balanced literary approach to maximize the child's ability to view tests in positive (Kosar, 2005) fashion. Then an improvement will be seen in the standardized reading and language test scores. The downside of testing : It is important to know that test results can go wrong for a variety of reasons. We can actually question the validity of the entire test result for many reasons. Some of these are elucidated below. 1. Most tests reward experience (Dunn, Rita and Dunn Kenneth, 1978). A child who has had repeated practice at a certain skill will naturally do it with a lot more ease than a child who has not had the benefit of frequent opportunities to do the same . 2. Children from cultural and socio economic minority groups are prone to poor performance on tests for the simple reason that the child may not relate to the subject comprehensively. For example, a child who does not speak English at home does not automatically think in that language and hence suffers when he is supposed to understand the nuances of a subject taught in English. 3. Children can be intimidated by the very prospect of a test at a younger age. The child's performance can suffer due to just the thought of doing a test. 4. Some children are not clued into writing within a particular time frame- especially in elementary schools - and dawdle over the test without finishing it. This does not mean that the child does not know the answer. 5. Some deterrents to academic progress could be a host of conditions that disrupt the normal learning process. These could range from language disorders, learning disabilities, dyslexia, ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and

Green engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Green engineering - Essay Example In the contemporary world, many people have installed the technologies to maximally benefit from solar energy. It is not only efficient, but a sustainable energy that can be relied on even in the future. The sun provides energy in two ways; by heating and through lighting. It radiates great amount of energy that travels through space and spreads all through the earth’s surface. Naturally, the inner core of sun produces the energy through a nuclear fusion of the hydrogen and helium atoms, radiates onto the sun’s surface, and consequently emits electromagnetic radiation onto the earth using a wide variety of wavelengths (â€Å"Alternative energy† kennesaw.edu). Upon reaching the earth surface, it is harvested for greater use in various processes. Solar energy is of great importance in supporting the life and processes of plants, as well as those of humans. Specific Aspects of how Solar Energy works There are two specific technologies of converting solar energy into electricity. These are the commonly known photovoltaic systems and solar thermal systems. They both employ very distinct mechanisms to produce power from the suns light. Photovoltaic energy This system of sunlight conversion uses solar panel technologies with the photovoltaic cells as the core element in generation of power (European communities 5). Solar panels are devices or modules of a connected assembly of photovoltaic cells, with the capability of collecting the sunlight photons for conversion. The solar panels are developed in different sizes of rectangular shape, from which several can be used as a combination to produce enough electricity. The solar cells in the panels are made up of semiconductor materials (silicon is very common), whose conductivity can be increased by introducing impurities (European communities 5). Basically, in the presence of light or sunshine, some of the radiant energy that hits PV cells is absorbed and transferred to the electrons within the atoms of the semiconductor. Because of the continuous transmitting energy from the sun, electrons of the cells tend to shift from their positions as they move towards a preferential side of attraction in the cells, creating an electric voltage that can be collected and channeled (â€Å"How do solar† nwwindandsolar.com). As the electrons move, they create space for others to move into, and hence generating the current in the electrical circuit (direct conversion of sunlight into electricity). Generally, once the energy as electricity is produced, the direct current generated and collected is converted through an inverter, into alternating current required to run most electronic appliances. The electricity can also be used by connecting the inverter to any load, or connect to the battery banks to store energy for further use. Suppose one switches into solar generated electricity using this technology, he has to enquire and seek suitable number and sizes of the solar panels that can be placed on the roof s, away from shade, and in a suitable position (South facing installations on the roof recommended), with correct angle inclinations to benefit

Managing capability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Managing capability - Essay Example The organizational capabilities are the typical analysis and assessment of the skills, potentials and the effort exhibited by the employees in the firm. The capabilities have the complete evaluation of the employees and the resources for the assurance of profitability and productivity. The organizational capabilities depend on the achievement of the organizational goals effectively and efficiently. The organizations play a vital role in routing these capabilities and they are the result of the interlinked routings. The analysis of the task is at ease in comparison with the creation of capability. The analysis starts with the questions related to the functioning, activities performed and the current performance. â€Å"The field of strategic management deals with understanding the ways how firms achieve competitive advantage and how they create superior value.† (Arndt, 2008). In this study the main aim is to identify the capability and how it is related to the competitive advant age, different tools and the frame work. The organization that is analyzed is Toyota, where the task is to identify the different capability and the contribution to the competitive advantage, and analyzing the different functional areas of them. â€Å"Toyota believe the potential for growth in our industry is extremely promising.† (Psabilla, 2007). The competitive advantage of the firm is the dependency of the firm on the revenue and the profitability of the firm. A firm is said to own competitive advantage when profit of the firm is greater than the average revenue. The aim of any business unit is to have a sustained competitive advantage. This is shown in fig-1 According to Michael porter, competitive advantages are of two types; they are the cost advantages and the differentiation advantages. The cost advantages are those when the firm is capable of marketing and selling the products with the same

Why does science matter to a democratic society Essay

Why does science matter to a democratic society - Essay Example Firstly, this form of punishment is a protective measure. For the safety of the inmates and other people in the facility, there is need to isolate people who are a threat to human life. Therefore, when a person is isolated from other inmates, the inmates’ safety is not jeopardized. Similarly, some inmates tend to have a conflict with a single inmate. This may be due to personal grudges and misunderstanding. Therefore, for the safety of such a person, solitary confinement is a prudent approach. Secondly, this type of punishment is used to limit any illegal or criminal activities. For instance, some inmates have communication avenues whilst in the prison. This communication is crucial as it facilitates criminal activities inside the facility. In some bizarre cases, inmates facilitate criminal activities outside the facility. When the inmates are noted to facilitate such activities, they are isolated from the other inmates. Apparently, this is a prudent approach to the situation. As a fact, the other inmates will not be coerced into joining the criminal gangs. Thirdly, solitary confinement is effective when the people in control are on a suicide watch. It is noted that some people exhibit suicidal behavior. For instance, Evan shot himself twice while on probation (Zennie 1). Similarly, the inmate can commit murder before committing suicide. To substantiate such behavior, the inmate is isolated from the other inmates. This may save the life of the inmate, as there will be a closer focus. Though some people are in support of solitary confinement, some people find it inappropriate. For instance, in the Daily Mail article, there are allegations that solitary confinement may have affected the behavior of attorney’s son. First, it is stated that people need a social life. This is where people interact with others, make friends,

Negotiation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Negotiation - Assignment Example The two-day long correspondence with the client leads to us negotiating with a price that did not amount to my work but was not in their favor as well. I ended up withholding the rest of the series I had been working on for them and they paid me half price on a project that I had worked a lot on but the positive point is that I knew my walk away terms. It was established that poor communication was what lead to the break of the deal and a case was not filed from either of the party which I think is an achievement. I could have conducted the negotiating terms better if there had been a better communication system involved with information sharing from the start that would have helped in benefiting both parties. Another tactic that I could have applied in the negotiating terms is priorities because I left a pile of unfinished projects in lieu of this certain project and had to put double the time in other projects, so one important thing I learned from this failed project was to always get my priorities right and to give maximum time to things but do not forget that there are other tasks that need to be done as well.The two-day long correspondence with the client leads to us negotiating with a price that did not amount to my work but was not in their favor as well. I ended up withholding the rest of the series I had been working on for them and they paid me half price on a project that I had worked a lot on. It was established that poor communication was what lead to the break of the deal.

Essay Example for Free

Essay INTRODUCTION An organization is a social unit of people, systematically arranged or managed to meet the needs or to pursue collective goals on a continuous basis. A sound organization can contribute greatly to the continuity and success of the enterprise. All organizations have a management structure that determines the relationship between functions and positions. Without proper care of higher, middle and lower levels of administration, it would be practically impossible for any management to run the organization smoothly. The better the organization the fuller would be the achievement of the common objective. Hence the study of the organization is of great importance. It helps to understand the organization better and become familiar with its functions. MRF LIMITED, an enterprise that was established in1946, in South India grew quickly to become one of India’s biggest tyre manufacturing companies, renowned for product superiority and innovation. MRF continues to be the leading tyre-maker in India. MRF inaugurated its Kottayam unit in 1969 as the second plant of MRF with a small rubber mixer and seven employees. The plant is engineered in four fully merged with the environment. World class rubber mixing facility with SCADA based recipe management, fully automated carbon handling systems and modern dust collecting systems keep the environment tidy. Facilities with upgraded systems for Tube, Tyre and PCTR manufacturing, deliver world class products. MRF Kottayam is certified with ISO 9001/ TS 16949, ISO 14001/OHSAS 18001-2007 etc. TPM initiatives improved the plant performance in all areas. MRF Kottayam unit also registered small scale energy saving projects for carbon credits and its liaison works with UNFCCC being done by consultants M/s. Ernst and Young. Its turnover crossed the 6100 crore mark in 2008. MRF has the widest product range among the domestic tyre companies as it makes tyres for all class of vehicles from trucks to two wheelers and go-karts. MRF Kottayam unit has nearly 2000 direct work force. 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study can be summarized as follows: To know the history and the growth of the company To understand the structure of the company To acquire knowledge about the functional as well as managerial aspects of the organization To learn about the manufacturing process of the products To analyze the financial performance of the company To learn the plans, policies and procedures of the organization To observe the work culture of the organization To acquire knowledge about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the organization 1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The organizational study was conducted in MRF Limited, Kottayam. The organizational structure and the management of various departments of MRF are taken for the purpose of the study. Sufficient attempt has been taken to cover almost all the facets of this organization and to understand the complex factors that are functioning within the organization 1.3 METHODOLOGY OF TRAINING Research is a systematic approach to a purposeful investigation. Methodology refers to the various methods used by the researcher right from the data collection and various techniques used for interpretation and inferences. Research methodology addresses the questions; what must be done, howl it must be done, what data must be collected, what data gathering methods must be employed, which sources of data must be selected and how the data must be analyzed and conclusion is reached. The total period allotted for the project work was one month. The study was undertaken by personally visiting the factory in Kottayam. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION a) PRIMARY DATA Primary data are those which are collected as first-hand information and thus they are original in character. These are collected from the direct sources like: Personal interview Observation method b) SECONDARY DATA Secondary data are those which have already been collected by some other agencies of the organization that has been processed. Some of them are: Previous records of the organization Magazines and Journals Websites 1.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Even if there was sufficient support from the staff of the company; a tight work schedule prevented them from giving additional information. The organizational study has come across certain limitations such as: The method used mainly provide qualitative data but lack of precision Too much of interaction was not possible due to the fear of trade secrets being exposed Personal bias could be the one key factor which has affected in having personal interviews CHAPTER-2 INDUSTRIAL PROFILE CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRIAL PROFILE 2.1 INDUSTRY BACKGROUND The tyre industry has evolved from the basic cross ply to the more sophisticated radical tyres. Nylon cords that impart low weight and additional strength to the tyres have also replaced cotton ply. This industry is also driven by agricultural and infrastructural activity that takes place in the region, as those two have an impact on the transport sector. The advent of globalization and liberalization in India urged the companies both small scale and large scale, to build in capabilities, in order to compete effectively on a global platform. The tyre industry in India has been striving hard to establish itself in the global market in its infant stage. There were threats from the global players who enjoyed substantial economies of scale. As a result, the Indian tyre companies were in a constant pursuit of adhering global standards of quality and state of the art technology in production. The fortune of the industry depends on the agricultural and industrial performance of the economy, the transportation needs and production of the vehicles. Hence this is a sensitive industry which has to adapt itself to a high volatile environment. ORIGIN OF THE INDUSTRY The tyre industry began to develop in India in 1920’s. The growth of the tyre industry in India may be divided into three phases. In the first phase, multinational companies like FIRESTONE (1920), GOODYEAR(1922) and DUNLOP(1926) came to Indian tyre industry for selling their products. They were considered as the fore runners of commercialization of tyres in India. During the early twenties and the mid-thirties, these companies became very famous and got established themselves in the industry. In the second phase, these multinational companies started their production in India. They became the first generation tyres of the Indian tyre industry. DUNLOP and FIRESTONE had put up plans to manufacture tyres in Kolkata and Mumbai in 1936 and 1942 respectively. The third phase of the Indian tyre industry began when the companies in India started manufacturing tyres that came out to be known as the second generation tyres. MRF, PREMIER and COOT etc were  the important companies among them. They started manufacturing their products in sixties and later on the third generation of the tyre industry started by 1970. APPOLO and JK TYRES were the most important companies among them. The most leading tyre companies in India are: MRF JK TYRES CEAT GOODYEAR APPOLO MODI BIRLA BRIDGESTONE MICHELIN After the initialization process started in 1922, the Indian economy was stepping the ladder much higher. Earlier, automobiles were mainly used for necessity. But nowadays, the whole trend has been changed in the livelihood. Even the middle class people can’t think about their life without having vehicles. This could be one of the main reasons that the Indian tyre industry is growing up day by day, even when the world is facing the major crisis of global recession. To an extent, the Indian tyre industry has faced few problems, but it has not affected the whole trend much seriously as far as the tyre industry of India is concerned. 2.2 THE INDIAN TYRE INDUSTRY The foreign companies dominated the Indian tyre industry till the 1960’s.However in the later part of the 60’s and early 70’s, the Indian Industrial Entrepreneurs made a stylish entry into the market alongside foreign collaborations with the automobile sector foundation within the country. The tyre industry saw the entry of many players and with the winds of liberalization blowing amidst the hue and cry, swept the entire land in 1922 and brought about the ride of joint ventures within the industry. The industry worth Rs. 9000 crores was independent upon the agricultural and industrial performance of the economy, the transportation needs and the production of vehicles. The Indian tyre industry is one of the largest in the world with more than 100 million motor vehicles on the Indian roads.  The Indian tyre industry evolves itself around some salient features like: Adaptability Innovativeness Exports Technology progression Wide product range for diverse usage The Indian tyre market can be categorized into three. They are: Original Equipment market Replacement market Export market The Replacement market generates demand to a greater extend as business volume tends to be high (85%), while the Original Equipment market demand is just a linear function of automobile production whose growth is in turn determined by the overall economic situation and the government policy. Globally, the Original Equipment market segment constitutes only 30% of the tyre market and 105 contributions comes from the Replacement market. This normally has placed the retreads in a better position than the tyre industry as a major colossal threat. The Coimbatore based Elgityres and Tread Limited, the largest retread in India is giving the tyre barons sleepless nights. The tyres basically produced in India are: CROSSPLY RADIAL TYRE The CROSSPLY tyres have been used in India for several years. In this, the Polycords run across with each other or diagonally to the outer surface of the tyre. Rayon and Nylon cords are used as the reinforcing medium. These tyres can retread twice during their life time and hence is preferred by Indian transporters who normally overload their trucks. In India, 90-95 percentages of such tyres are sold. The Radial tyres have their cords running radially from bead at 90 degree angle to the rim or along the outer surface of the tyre. The reinforcing mediums used in these tyres are Polyester, Nylon, Fiber Glass and Steel. Thus guaranteeing a longer life time and provide lower fuel consumption, with better control over the vehicle and road holding. The unhealthy condition of the Indian roads has resulted in Radial tyres accounting only five percentage of tyre industry as against a global trend of 60 percentages. The tyre industry is a major consumer of the domestic rubber production. The degree of contribution towards the material content in the Indian tyre industry by the Natural Rubber constitutes about 80% and the remaining 20% contribution is made by the Synthetic Rubber( worldwide, the ratio of Natural Rubber to Synthetic Rubber is 30:70) tyres which are subject to the use of different chemicals. The available local Natural Rubber is an added advantage for the industry, since it amounts to around 255 of the total raw material cost of tyres. On the contrary, Synthetic Rubber accounts to just 40% of the total raw material cost (India imports 60% of its Synthetic Rubber requirements). Apart from rubber, the major raw materials are Nylon Tyre, Code and Carbon Black. These raw materials are used to make the tyre strong and impart tenacity to it, while the latter holds respon sibility for the color of the tyre and also enhance the life span of the tyre. Nylon codes comprise 345 of the total raw material cost, while Carbon Black accounts about 13 percentages. To be concise, the tyre industry in India is highly raw material intensive and its cost directly affects the profitability of tyres. Therefore about 60-70% of the cost of production is from the cost of raw materials itself. Most of the raw materials are petroleum based. So the price of the international crude oil affects the tyre industry at large. Fortunately for the tyre industry, the rubber and carbon black prices have declined considerably. 2.3 PRODUCT PROFILE The company puts out the following offerings which are the major sellers in their segment: 1. MRF NYLON GRIP ZAPPER FS- MOTOR CYCLE TYRE 2. MRF NYLON GRIP ZAPPER FM- MOTOR CYCLE TYRE 3. MRF NYLON GRIP ZAPPER FV-MOTOR CYCLE TYRE 4. MRF MUSCLE ROK – EARTH MOVERS- OTR TYRE 5. MRF MUSCLE ROK- LOADERS- OTR TYRE 6. MRF MUSCLE ROK- X- OTR TYRES 7. MRF SAND GRIP- MULTI TERRIAN- OTR TYRE 8. MRF LEGEND- PASSENGER BIAS 9. MRF ZVTS- PASSENGER TYRE 10. MRF WANDERER- PASSENGER TYRE 11. MRF SUPER MILER – TRUCK TYRE 12. MRF SUPER LUG- 50- TRUCK TYRE 13. MRF SUPER LUG- 78- TRUCK TYRE 14. MRF SUPER LUG- 50 PLUS- TRUCK TYRE 15. MRF SUPER LUG- 50S- TRUCK TYRE 16. MRF STEEL MUSCLE- TRUCK RADIAL TYRES 17. MRF STEEL MASTER – LCV RADIAL 18. MRF ZVGLSK – ECO FRIENDLY PASSENGER TYRE 19. MRF BIG ROVER – JEEP TYRE 20. MRF SHAKTI – TRACTOR FRONT TYRE 21. MRF SAFARI 22. MRF SHAKTI LIFE- TRACTOR, REAR TYRE CHAPTER 3 COMPANY PROFILE CHAPTER 3 COMPANY PROFILE 3.1 MRF LIMITED MRF was started in the year 1946 by Mr.K.M.Mammen Mappillai, a young entrepreneur from central Kerala. The company was started as a toy and balloon manufacturing unit at Tiruvottiyur, Chennai and from 1951 the company took up the manufacture of tread rubber. By 1958, MRF was known as Madras Rubber Factory Limited. Since 1946, MRF has emerged as the largest tyre manufacturer in India and 12th largest in the world. The company caters to all vehicle segments from commercial vehicles and passenger cars to two-three wheelers and tractors. It has also made a strong presence for itself in both the radial and cross ply segments. It boasts of 68 sales centers, 2500 distributors and exports to over 75 countries, a standing testament to MRF’s outstanding leadership. VISION MRF will be significant global player delighting customers worldwide through Leadership in technology World class systems Excellence in manufacturing Driven by a team of motivated high performers, to achieve profitable growth. CORPORATE AND PLANT FUNCTIONS The corporate office is situated at Chennai where Marketing, Exports, Central planning, Engineering, Quality Assurance, Materials, Human Resource and Industrial Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Safety functions are carried out by Technical and Research and Development functions (plant technical) to cater to specific products. THE MUSCLEMAN The mere mention of the word MRF is bound to bring â€Å"The Muscleman† in the mind of Indians. The muscleman evolved in 1964, soon after MRF began manufacturing tyres. During the last 35 years, the â€Å"Muscleman† has evolved from a mere corporate mascot to a symbol of strength, reliability and durability; embedding the quality of tyres that the muscle man represents. The muscleman evolved into a high-tech symbol in the mid-80, a sign of changing times. Its new appearance was a silent testimony to the indomitable spirit that carried MRF across the INR 20 billion mark. The muscleman’s appearance changed once again in 1996, MRF’s golden jubilee year. He started appearing in full form and is now also known affectionately as the MRF tyre man by motorists across India and 65 countries worldwide, which have come to rely on him for sale and comfortable ride. MRF PRODUCTION UNITS Tiruvottiyur : Tamilnadu Arakonam : Tamilnadu Kottayam : Kerala Ponda : Goa Medak : Andhra Pradesh Puducherry :Tamilnadu POLICIES QUALITY POLICY Quality policy of MRF is to maintain market leadership through continuous  quality improvement. To achieve this goal, all the plants and the corporate office shall pay particular attention to the following: Product or process improvement by field or plant performance monitoring and prompt services to the customers Up gradation of machinery to meet the increasing needs of the customer Continuous training of all employees in order to acquire necessary skills and knowledge At the plant level, the respective senior General Manager or General Manager is assigned the responsibility of carrying out the quality system by collaborating with the corporate functions. SAFETY POLICY It is the policy of our company that, the SAFETY AND HEALTH of our employees shall be our FIRST priority. It is the responsibility of everyone in the organization, regardless of the position he occupies, to ensure that everyone in the factory returns home to his beloved ones without any injury that day and every day We shall observe this policy not only in letter but also in spirit and offer ‘ACCIDENT FREE SAFE PRODUCTION’ for the benefit of one and all. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY The environmental policy of MRF is to manufacture our products in an environmentally friendly and safe manner. To achieve this goal, all the MRF plants, together with the corporate office shall: Minimize the impact of our manufacturing activities on the environment, especially the air, water and soil Comply with all applicable regulatory requirements Develop the environmental performance evaluation procedure for the continuous monitoring Up gradation of the machinery and pollution control equipment when required Train all over employees to perform their activities in an environmentally responsible land safe manner At the plant level, the respective Senior General Manager or General Manager is assigned the responsibility of carrying out the environmental system by collaborating with the corporate functions. TRAINING POLICY The training policy of MRF is to provide and develop knowledge, skills and  behavior of their employees to continuously improve their performance. To achieve this goal, all MRF plants together with the corporate office shall: Identify and document training needs of each employee, through competence evaluation each year Design and publish training calendar and schedule Provide training periodicals based on identified needs and as per the documented schedule Monitor and evaluate training process and outcomes to assess and to decide the next training cycle requirement At the plant level, the respective Senior General Manager or General Manager is assigned the responsibility of carrying out the training activities through Human Resource Department of the plant and the corporate office. TMP POLICY A Total Productive Factory where The work environment is pleasant The work force is highly motivated and empowered The machineries are reliable, efficient and precise to meet the increasing customer demand The product satisfies the customers with high quality and best price MAIN CUSTOMERS 1. Volvo 2. Tata Motors 3. Ashok Leyland 4. Mahindra 5. Force Motors COMPETITOR Some of the major competitors of the company are: 1. Michelin 2. AppoloTyres 3. Bridgestone 4. JK Tyres 5. Goodyear 6. CEAT MILESTONE IN THE MRF HISTORY It was in the late 1946 that a young pioneer, K.M.MAMMEN MAPPILLAI started a small toy balloon manufacturing unit in a small shed at Tiruvottiyur in Chennai. 1952: Company ventured into the manufacture of tread rubber  1955:MRF soon becomes the only Indian owned company to manufacture the superior extruded, non-blooming and cushion- backed tread rubber enabling it to compete with the MNC’s operating in India at the same time 1956: The quality of the product was of a high standard that by the close of 1956, MRF had become the market leader with a 50% share of tread rubber market in India. So effectively was MRF’s hold on the market, that the large multinationals had no other option but gradually withdraw from the tread rubber business in India 1961: With the success achieved in tread rubber, MRF entered into the manufacturing of tyres. MRF established a technical collaboration with the Mansfield Tyre and the Rubber Company of USA. Around the same time, MRF also became a public limited company 1963: Pandit JAWAHAR Nehru laid the foundation stone for the rubber research Center at Tiruvottiyur to commemorate the inauguration of the Tiruvottiyur factory 1964: With the commissioning of the main plant in 1964, MRF also made progress in the export of tyres. An overseas office at Beirut was established to develop the export market, and it was amongst India’s very first efforts on tyre exports. This year also marked the birth of the now famous MRF Muscleman. 1967: MRF became the first Indian company to export tyre to USA- the very birth place of tyre technology 1969: MRF factory built at Kottayam 1970: MRF inaugurated its Kottayam unit 1971: MRF gained license to build factory in Goa 1972: MRF’s fourth factory set up at Arakonam 1973: MRF launched India’s first Nylon car tyre 1978: MRF launched Super lug- the country’s largest selling truck tyre 1979: MRF turnover crossed Rs. 100 crores 1980: MRF entered into a technical collaboration with the B.F. Goodrich Tyre Company of USA, which was involved with the development of tyres for the NASA space- shuttle. With this began a significant exercise in quality improvement and new product development. MRF took a major policy decision to be aggressive on the racing circuits 1983: MRF began rapid product  development programme for the new vehicles entering India 1984: MRF sales turnover crossed Rs. 200 crores. MRF tyres were the first tyre selected for the fitment on the Maruthi Suzuki 800 India’s first modern car 1986: MRF was selected by National Institution of Quality Assurance for their most prestigious award. Pitted against 20 tyre companies worldwide, MRF also won 6 quality improvement awards instituted by B.F Goodrich tyre Company from USA 1987: MRF becomes the No.1 tyre company in India. MRF crossed Rs. 300 crores turnover. MRF legend, the Premium Nylon car tyre was introduced 1988: MRF pace foundation was set up, with international pace bowler, Dennis Lillee as its Director. Not long thereafter, pace bowlers trained at the foundation were selected for the Indian Cricket team 1989: MRF medak plant went on stream. Once again recognition of excellence, MRF was awarded the Visveswaraya Award for the Best Business House in South India and the Economic times Harvard Business School Award for the Best Corporate Performance. MRF collaborated with Hasbro international USA, the world’s largest toy makers and launched Funskool India 1993: K.M.MammenMappillai was awarded the Padmashri award of National Recognition for his contribution to industry the only industrialist from South India to be accorded this honor until that time. MRF was selected as one of India’s most admired marketing companies by the readers of the A and M magazine 1996: MRF celebrated 50 years. Turnover touches Rs.2000 crores. A special factory dedicated to the manufacture of radials was started at Pondicherry. MRF tyres were also chosen for fitment on the Ford Escort, Opel Astra and Fiat Uno 1997: MRF launches its first ever F3 car 1998: MRF launches its Super Lug tyre for trucks 1999: MRF was declared the most ethical company by â€Å"Business World† magazine in its survey 2000: MRF launched the smile campaign on Indian roads 2001: MRF won JD power award for customer satisfaction 2002: The MRF Nylogrip Zappers for two wheelers is launched. MRF wins the JD Power Award 2004: MRF’s turn over crossed Rs. 3000 crores 2006: MRF’s turn over crossed Rs. 5000 crores 2008: MRF’s turn over crossed Rs. 6000 crores 2009: In spite of Global meltdown, MRF’s turn over crossed Rs. 6200 crores MRF LIMITED KOTTAYAM UNIT- OVERVIEW MRF Tyres, Kottayam was set up in 1969 on a hill top in the village of Vadavathoor about 7 km from Kottayam town in the state of Kerala. After starting the first MRF unit at Thiruvottiyur in Chennai, MRF management decided to take advantage of low electricity costs, tax concessions on Natural Rubber at no extra transportation cost and the availability of skilled and educated labor and started the second unit of MRF at Kottayam. The unit started off as a factory building with an area of 34200 sq. ft. and a Ban bury of 3A size with a capacity to mix 10 meters a day. Today MRF houses 265 management staff and 1319 regular workers. It started as a small mixing unit growing into a full scaled manufacturing unit producing tyres. It also manufactures tread rubber and with two newly installed Ban bury. It has become one of the most productive plants in India with a record production of tubes. The commissioning of a tyre plant in 1994 marked a new era in the unit’s history. Initially, t ractor tyres were produced, and then diversified into passenger tyres and truck tyres of various types. The Kottayam plant supplies mixed rubber to the other plants of MRF and with the increase of demand the plant had to be augmented. A new plant exclusively for mixing, was built with huge internal mixers and a mixing capacity of 600 tons per day and is one of the largest mixing units in Asia. PLANTS WITHIN THE KOTTAYAM UNIT Tube plant Tyre plant Mixing plant Pre-cured Tread tyre plant The present turnover of finished goods of Kottayam unit is Rs. 650 crores per annum. Kottayam unit has also started Pre-cured tread rubber (PCTR) production in August 1993. KOTTAYAM PLANT FACTS AND FIGURES Built up area 600000 Sq. Ft. Management staff 252 Nos Regular workmen 1115 Nos Casual workman   399 Nos Total Finished goods production 3400 MT/ month Total turnover of finished goods 37 crores/ month Mixed stock sent to other units 7000 MT/ month Tyre Production 52000 Tyres/ month Tubes, Envelopes and curing bags production 263000/ month Flap Production 82000/ month Conventional tread rubber production 160 MT/ month PCTR Production 330 Tonnes/ month Repair Materials 83 Tonnes/ month Vulcanizing Solutions 32500 Litres/ month FIG 2.1 ORGANISATIONAL CHART 3.2 FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTS AT MRF LIMITED The organization is made up of different departments. Departmentalization is the grouping together of similar or logically related activities. There are several bases for departmentalization. The different forms of departmentalization are departmentalization by functions, by products, by regions, by process or a combination of any of them. The basic need of department arises because of specialization of work and limitation on the number of sub-ordinates that can be directly controlled by the superior. Departmentation converts the work into manageable units. If there was no departmentation, there would have been serious limitation on the side of the organization. The company is having eight different departments which play a vital role in the development of the company. The different departments are:- 1. Production Department 2. Human Resource Department 3. Accounts and Finance Department 4. Quality Assurance Department 5. Engineering Department 6. Industrial Engineering Department 7. Technical Department 8. Security and Safety Department PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT Among all the functional areas of management, production is considered to be crucial in any industrial organization. Production in terms of economics is the process developed to create a collection of input, which may be energy, capital, information, material, manpower or any other raw materials into a specified set of output produce like finished goods and services in proper quantity quality. Production is the primary function of the company, thus all other functions support the production department in various segments. Pro-duction Department controls the production process by coordinating the activities of other departments. After receiving the marketing or Sales price from corporate office, the annual production plan is made and this will be further broken down into monthly and weekly plan. MRF has production in four plants. They are Tube plant, Tyre plant Mixing plant and PCTR plant FIG 2.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS PLANT 1 TUBE PLANT In this plant artificial rubber called butyl rubber is used for manufacturing of the tubes. It is mixed with carbon black and chemicals and then extruded into various sizes. After sufficient cooling it is sent for pre-cutting to the required length, value fixing and splicing. It is then moved to the freezing table for cooling the splice joint and is shaped to the required size. After this is taken out and kept inside the curing presses for vulcanization. After the set time the tube is unloaded from the press and sent for inspection. The tubes are then deflated using vacuum and the tube core is inserted. The size are segregated and packed as per the standards. FIG 2.3 PLANT 2 TYRE PLANT Grey fabric is passed through calendaring machine for coating both sides with rubber. From there it goes to a machine called the fabric cutter for cutting  it into different lengths as per specifications. Steel wires are passed through bead extruder for coating with rubber and wounded on specific wheels as per the specifications. On tyre build-ing machine, green tyres are made using calendared fabric, bead, tread etc. Green tyres are vulcanized in tyre curing press by steam heated moulds. After this the tyres are inflated to retain its properties by trimming, inspection and dispatch. FIG 2.4 PLANT 3 MIXING PLANT Ordinary rubber is mixed with carbon black, chemicals and the rubber processing oils in the specified quantities into the rubber mix-ing equipment called the ban bury. From there it is dumped into the dump mill and passed through batch of tanks in sheet form for cooling and is then stored in metal skids. Samples from each batch are tested and the batch is certified for use. This compound rubber is sent to the tyre and PCTR plants. FIG 2.5 PLANT 4— PCTR PLANT Pre — cured Tread Rubber (PCTR) is used for re — treading rubber. Compound rubber is used in mixing mills and extruded to the required size using extruders and passed through conveyors for cool-ing. These slugs are stored in leaf trucks for ageing. It is then vulcanized in the curing process. After curing, an excess flash material is trimmed off and goes for inspection. It is then sent to the stretch wrap-ping machine for packing. FIG 2.6 FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT The main functions of Production department are: PLANNING FOR PRODUCTION PROCESS: This is based on the monthly plan given by central planning, plant planning department will prepare a simulation plan by dividing the month into 3 segments of 10 days each. The simulation plan given by plant planning for the month is taken as a guide line and each  plant plans the production for each process. The available inventory and the priority of dispatch are taken into consideration while daily schedule is given. Slight changes are made in the simulation plan to reduce the number of sizes running at a time with the objective of improving production efficiency. MATERIAL INDENT AND RECEIPT: The daily requirement of raw materials is calculated on each plant after considering the available inventory and the scheduled production for the next day. Raw material indent is made to raw material store. Raw material stores make arrangements to deliver the indented material at the plant. PROCESSING: Processing is carried out as per the technical specification, BSP (Basic Standard Practice) and the work instruction of the respective department. Set up verification is done for each product and each run. Once the process is stabilized, the process parameters are checked and recorded. If the parameters are as per the specifications, production is continued. If any parameter is not confirming to the specified limits, then necessary correction is made and the production process is resumed. Whenever a machine/ equipment are behaving abnormally, it is informed to the engineering department. If the process variation is abnormal, production is stopped by production supervisor/ quality supervisor/ technical supervisor. The abnormality of machine is rectified by engineering department and the machine is handed over to production. If any non-conformance is noticed in the product, it is held using NCM [Non-Conforming Material] tag. Whenever engineering department notices a machine behaving abnormally, they request production stoppage through a maintenance request PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION AND TRACEABILITY: The objective of proper identification and traceability is to prevent mixing up of products and to ensure traceability of products at various stages. This applies to raw materials, in- process materials and finished goods. For example, in the case of extruded tubes, details like size, month code, year code, plant code, date of extrusion, extruder operator code, and ‘ made from imported Butyl are printed. Traceability is ensured in different ways. For example, while extruding treads, the details of stock (like stock code, date and shift of mixing, batch numbers) used for extruding those treads are entered in the traceability register. CHECKING AND INSPECTION: The activity of inspection covers raw materials, process parameters, in – process materials and finished goods. Inspection is done to ensure that the materials, equipment and storage area are free from any contamination. Proper identification of the materials, FIFO (first in first out), ageing (minimum and maximum), and test status (whether the material is tested and cleared, or is pending for test or is it rejected after testing) are checked. Dimension checking is done during in – process operations. Visual checking is done on in – process materials for defects like cured lumps, air traps, wrinkles, improper cutting etc. process parameters like temperature, pressure, water flow etc are also checked. Visual inspection of finished product is carried out by production department. CONTROL OF NON- CONFIRMING PRODUCTS: During the processing, if any non-conformance is noticed in the product, it is held with a NCM (Non-Conforming Material) tag, which is filled up in duplicate with details like the material that has been held, size/ code, defect, quality held and the location where the material is kept. It has separate space for writing down the disposal and also the disposal follow up. CORRECTIVE AND PREVENTIVE ACTION: Corrective is a required action when a non-conformity is noticed either in process or product, immediate corrective action is taken to rectify the defect, so that the process or product is not affected any further. Preventive action is required when recurring non conformities which are noticed, in process by production, quality, technical or engineering are taken up for discussion in the weekly QA( Quality Assurance) meeting to initiate preventive action in consultation with the concerned departments. In case of occurrence of non-conforming process or product due to operational lapse, the concerned people are trained. In other cases, the proposed preventive action is recorded in the minutes of the meeting and the responsibility of implementing is assigned to the concerned departmental person as decided in the meeting. This is followed up in the  subsequent meetings and reviewed for its effectiveness. If the preventive action calls for a change in p rocedure or work instructions, this is discussed in the weekly Quality Assurance Meeting and a joint decision is taken by the departmental heads. HUMAN RESOURCE DEPARTMENT Human resource management perceives organizations in their totality. Every organization requires many things in order to be effective for producing the product or service, financial resources, away of marketing whatever product or service is created by human resource. People are the real assets of an organization. Without human beings the organization cannot attain any progress. The production, technology, financing and customer connection can all be copied easily. But every organization must find effective way to attract, retain and motivate employees. FIG 2.7 FUNCTIONS OF HR DEPARTMENT HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING The Board of Directors, Plant Manager and the HR Manager will decide the number of employees required, their qualification, method of requirement, remuneration etc. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION It is one of the main functions of HR department. In the case of management staff, the functions of recruitment, selection and placement is done by corporate HR department. Induction and orientation is given by plant HR. this is to align the objectives and the goals of the individual with that of the company, so that the synergy produces benefits to the company as well as to the individual. In the case of workmen, selection is done by plant HR department through a written test followed by an interview. Then they are given induction and orientation before being sent to the plant for on the job training. Workers are selected at 100% merit basis. Experience is considered as an additional qualification. MRF provides the tradition of selecting the relatives of the existing employees wherever a vacancy arises provided the relative is fit and suitable for the job. 1. Application Blank 2. Antecedent Verification 3. Medical Checkup 4. Blood Group Testing 5. Reference Letter 6. Recommendation Letter 7. Selection List 8. Physical Examination 9. Selection Interview 10. Appointment TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT A program of training and development is important as it lends stability and flexibility to an organization, besides contributing to its capacity to grow. It is essential to help in developing skills and updating knowledge. Especially in a cut- throat world, an organization must commit resource in employee training and development if it has to maintain a viable knowledge work force. PROCEDURE FOR TRAINING The plant Human Resource Department maintains records of education, experience and training of all personnel. The plant HRD sends competency evaluation forms to all department heads once a year. The significant aspects in each job which affects product quality are identified in various work centers and the significant jobs are listed out. The Department Heads along with the section heads determine the necessary competence required for personnel whose work affects product quality. The competencies of those who perform significant jobs are evaluated and the area in which training is to be imparted is determined for those who fall below the required competency level. These details are sent back to the HRD by concerned department Heads. HRD consolidates the training requirements and a training calendar is prepared. For external training programs wherever required plant sends the details to corporate functional heads for approval and corporate HR arranges the approved training programs. Internal training programs are conducted with either internal or external faculties. Training programs are conducted in accordance with the identified training needs of the employees and also  the company needs (wherever required). Training details are recorded in the training register. The details of the training program attended by each employee are entered in the data base after the training program. Wherever feasible, pre training and post training tests are conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the training programs. Wherever pre training and post training are not feasible, training evaluation forms are filled by the participants and sent to plant HR/Corp.HR. New entrants are given orientation training as per the orientation schedule. Monthly reports of the training activities are sent to Corporate HR . MODES OF TRAINING The various modes of training are as follows: a. Knowledge Based training b. Skill based Training (On –the- job and Off- the- job) The methods used in Knowledge Based Training or conceptual training are total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and ISO 9000 to ensure quality to both products and employees. At the same time, Skill Based Training includes mainly Technical Training. On- the -job training is usually meant for the men at work place as well as supervisors. It includes activities, assignments, operations, machinery etc. Off- the- job training is usually given to employees from General Manager to workmen. Off –the- job training consists of class room classes, training, quality training, meetings, behavior based training, external training. WAGE AND SALARY ADMINISTRATION The wages of the workmen is fixed based on the long term agreement. It is paid to the workmen based on the work done on each day as a piece rate system. The work done on each day is recorded in work sheets and it is routed through time office to the accounts section where wages to be paid are calculated and paid. The wages to be paid for the casual workmen is fixed and revised from time to time. In the case of management staff, salary is fixed by the corporate HRD. The plant HRD coordinates the periodic appraisal of performance which is the basis for salary revision. The salary for the staff is paid on the basis of attendance and this is  monitored by time office which is a function of HRD. The time office does the functions of time keeping, attendance monitoring and up keep of leave records. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Performance appraisal is the systematic, periodic and an impartial rating of an employee’s excellence in their allotted work and is treated properly by giving Dearness Allowance, Fringe Benefits, Bonuses and other payments according to the rules and regulations of the company. According to the seniority and performance, an employee gets a shift in his position in the same hierarchy. It depends upon the parameters such as seniority, merit and the suitability of the job. The performance appraisal is done on weekly, monthly, half yearly and yearly basis. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND LABOUR MANAGEMENT The company has very good cordial industrial relations. The two trade unions of the company are: → MRF Employees Union (INTUC)  Ã¢â€ â€™ MRF employees union (CITU) The trade union consists of an organization. They also have a level of hierarchy. The local leaders of the trade union are the Secretary, Treasurer and a Convener. The external leader comprises of President, Vice President and General Secretary. The workmen category of MRF is controlled by a Long Term Agreement every three years. Negotiations and conciliation between Management and Workmen are made over the table through continued discussions. This is mainly organized by HR with the help of Industrial Engineers and other departments involved. DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS Absenteeism is dealt in MRF in a very strict manner. An employee who absents himself regularly is first called and advised to improve the attendance. After that if he is not improving, a show cause notice issued and asked for written explanation, which has to be submitted within 48 hours of notice. If he still continuous to be absent, he is issued a first warning, then a second warning. After this he will be suspended and if he still has not changed, he will be terminated. This principle is applicable to all the  employees who are irregular and who violate the rules and regulations of the company. The procedure of this rule is descriptive. Employees, who are absent regularly, would be given a show cause notice. A charge sheet is issued upon the receipt of unsatisfactory reply to the show cause notice. A domestic enquiry is also issued. By this procedure, the absentees and those who violate the rules and regulations are made to understand the situation that led them to this conduct. The second show cause notice is issued for the employees to present reasons. If he/she fails to state a convincing reason, then he/she would be suspended or even dismissed from the company. These rules are common for all the employees who are trying to falsify the record or status of the company. The dismissed employee is considered in the case of an assault or making the person a criminal. STATUTORY AND NON STATUTORY WELFARE MEASURES The welfare of labour is the statutory code which is controlled by the Factories Act for the benefit of the employees within the industrial system. Sometimes the living and cultural condition of the employees beyond which is required by the law, keeping in par with the customs of the industry and the conditions of the market. Labour welfare aims at providing the physical, psychological and general well-being of the work population. The welfare officer carries out all the functions and activities related to labour welfare and take care of the physical and general well-being of the employees. The main functions of the Welfare Officer are as follows: The welfare officer helps to maintain a harmonious relationship between the factory management and the workers by establishing contact and holding consultations. To notice the grievance of the workers to the management and act as a Liaison officer between the management and the labour. OTHER WELFARE FACILITIES Loans are given to employees to purchase vehicles for them, educational loans are also provided. Basic essential facilities such as food, shelter, sanitation, recreational facilities, reading facilities are also provided. Workers in the factory are provided with safety gloves, shoes, masks for the accident free working environment. MEDICAL FACILITIES Every employee and his family members are covered under some or other Health Scheme based on the wage package.at the moment if it is below Rs.7500/-they will be covered under ESI scheme. If it is above the limit then a special Medical Insurance Scheme is arranged for them covering the expenses in connection with Hospitalization and Personal Accident. WORKING HOURS The working hours in MRF are divided into 4 shifts, the time allotted to each shift is mentioned under:- General shift -8.00am to 4.30pm First shift -7.00am to 3.00pm Second shift -3.00pm to 11.00am Third shift -11.00pm to 7.00am ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE DEPARTMENT Finance is the life blood of every organization. According to J.F. Brodley â€Å"Financial management is the area of business management devoted to a judicious use of capital and careful selection of the source of capital in order to enable a business firm to move in the direction of reaching its goals†. A firm cannot sustain in the absence of an efficient financial department. Plant account manager is in full charge of various activities done by the accounts department. He verifies the various functions done in each section. He takes decision for maximizing the profit and minimizing the expenses. He makes an important decision. This department keeps accounts of all the financial transactions of the company. The accounting period of MRF is from October 1st of one year to September 31st of the next year. MRF has a fully computerized accounting of production unit starting from the issue of goods received to the final documentation is computerized. Funds obtained for capital structuring for both internal and external sources. The internal sources include capital reserved debentures; shareholders etc. and the  external sources include banks such as SBI, Canara Bank etc. the strategy that the company has adopted is to go for credit transactions and payment will be made within one month time. All the costing taxation, salaries and wages, fringe benefits turnove r details etc are computed and posted by the raw materials stores, engineering stores, shipping departments and engineering departments. Wages, fringe benefits turnover details etc are computed and posted by the raw materials stores, engineering stores, shipping departments and engineering departments. FIG 2.8 FUNCTIONS OF ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE DEPARTMENT * FINANCIAL ACCOUNTS This branch deals with all types of cash payments and receipts. This will include payment for engineering and raw material purchase, petty cash payments, operation and reconciliation of bank accounts, payment to the government in the form of taxes and levies, payment of PF, deduction from salary and payment of loan outstanding and insurance premium of employee, freight payments, payment in lieu of travel bill of employees, canteen expenses, payment to contractors, payment of leave travel allowance, medical re-imbursement etc. cash receipts in the case of scrap sales and any other cash receipt will also come under this branch of accounts. FIG 2.9 FINANCIAL RESULTS 2009-2010 [Rs in crore] 2009 2010 Sales 6141.94 8080.45 Other Income 34.40 41.97 Total Income 6176.34 8122.42 Profit Before Taxation 398.48 534.66 Provision for Taxation 145.45 180.68 Profit after Taxation 253.03 353.98 Share Capital 4.24 4.24 Reserves 1357.18 1686.44 Net Worth 1361.42 1690.68 Fixed Assets Gross 3020.57 3865.62 * COST ACCOUNTS This branch deals with forecasting, budgeting, analyzing and re-porting the income and expenditure of the company. The budget for expenditure is prepared using standard costing principles and it is com-pared with the actual expenditure. Any variation from the budget (whether positive or negative) is analyzed to find the exact reason and it is reported to the top management. * WAGES AND SALARY Computation of wages and salaries is done by this section of accounts departments. Wages of workmen are fixed in the long term agreement and is calculated on a daily basis depending on various factors like grade, number of hours worked, the output achieved etc. * SALES TAX All matters related to sales tax are handled by this section. Monthly returns for sales tax are filed on behalf of sales depots. VAT (Value Added Tax) system has been introduced and all matters related to this are also looked after by this branch of accounts. C forms are issued for purchases from outside the state and F forms are issued for receipt of goods from depots. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT Quality is considered as the most effective tool to improve productivity, to achieve cost effectiveness, to improve profitability and market share and to remain competitive in the global market. In the business environment of today, quality impacts not only products and services but also many other relevant entities such as process, systems, people and organization. When a person buys our product, he has certain expectations. These are determined by several factors and it de-pends on the intended use of the product. The expectations can be performance, price, dependability, consistency of performance etc. If the product fulfills the customers expectations when it is used, he will be pleased with tile product and will say that product is of good quality. If his expectations are not met he will say that the product is of low quality. FIG 2.10 FUNCTIONS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT The quality system requirements of the customers are collected and all efforts are taken to ensure that the requirements are met. This is done by employing statistical process control techniques and by training the operators. The different functions of quality assurance department are as follows: → To process audit and final product inspection → To improve the profitability of the company by reducing defects and waste generation → To materialize the document called Basic standard practice, which says how the process is to be carried out, what are the ‘do’s and  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœdon’t’s of each process etc → Whenever a process or product does not meet the specifications, the process is stopped and the defective products are kept held using a tag called the NCM (Non-Conforming Material) tag → To check whether the process is carried out in concurrence with the laid down specifications and the basic standard practice → The performance of the product are recorded and monitored on a daily basis so that any abnormal deviation can be easily detected and attacked → To initiate studies for implementing new systems and procedures on the principle of continuous improvement. FMEA (Failure Mode Effect Analysis) is carried out and a control plan is also prepared to ensure that the causes of failure are avoided before they happen → Whenever a tool change is done, the relevant parameters are checked by quality Assurance and certification is done before the commencement of production → Whenever a new machinery is installed, QA carries out the process of industrialization of machinery, in collaboration with engineering and technical department → Audits on suppliers and outside godowns are conducted periodically to ensure that the materials procured are of the required quality and also ensure that they are stored in the manner that does not give room for any determination → Slow moving and non-moving items are tracked at regular intervals to avoid the material getting deteriorated due to prolonged storage and to avoid producing material which is not needed in the market. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT The functions of Engineering Department are divided into mechanical, electrical, instrumentation, civil and environmental engineer-ing. The main functions are new machinery layout preparation, erection and commissioning of new machinery, preventive maintenance, breakdown maintenance, condition monitoring and overhauling of machinery and other related equipment’s. Erection, commissioning, operation and maintenance of utility items, generators, boilers, compressors, pumps, freezer lines and cooling towers and maintenance of material handling systems are done by engineering departments. The maintenance of equipment’s at pump house and allocation of training centers are also done. FIG 2.11 FUNCTIONS OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE 1. Preventive Maintenance All equipment’s that need preventive maintenance are listed out. It is ensured that the equipment history and manuals are available for all machines. A preventive maintenance schedule is prepared after a careful analysis of breakdowns in the machine and based on the personal experience of the maintenance personnel. Preventive maintenance schedule for the particular week is taken and the necessary materials, tools, manpower and spares are arranged. The necessary clearances are obtained from planning and production of equipment’s and the machine is released for maintenance. The schedule maintenance activities are carried out based on work instructions and experience. Then the machine is checked and handed over to production. Based on the number and nature of breakdowns in each machine during the year, the preventive maintenance schedule reviewed and a new schedule is prepared for the next year. 2. Breakdown Maintenance The defective machinery is identified either by production or by engineering and a maintenance request is generated. In case of production detecting the flow, production raises the maintenance request and in the case of engineering detecting the flow, engineering raises the maintenance request and arranges for the tools, maintenance personnel and spare parts. Then the machine is released for the maintenance. The required maintenance jobs are carried out and the machine is thoroughly checked. If the maintenance is done, then the machine is handed over to the production. Otherwise the necessary rectifications are done again. Every month, down time analysis is done and permanent corrective actions are initiated in the case of recurring failures. CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS FINDINGS MRF Limited is the leading tyre manufacturing company in India which has exports over 75 countries across the world MRF makes tyres for heavy duty trucks, bus, light truck, passenger car to motor cars, rally cars, off the road earth movers, two and three wheelers, farm service and military service Talking about the findings on the infrastructure of the manufacturing plant in Kottayam, there is good working environment for the employees The usage of modern and updated technology, in the field of production process gives a cutting edge to the modernization of the company The improved quality standards of the company show a tremendous achievement in the tyre industry All departments are well structured Good working environment for employees Team effort and honesty in their strength Health and safety of employees are given importance Training programmes and meetings are held subsequently SUGGESTIONS The present strategies of the company in various segments should be improvised especially in the case of setting up a marketing development in the unit The company should maintain better tie ups with the dealers and subsidiary institutions More attractive advertisements in media would help in marketing The company website should be updated often Motivational incentives should be given to the best performers in the organization as it could be the best way to do performance appraisal to figure out if more productivity of the work is being performed It is better to provide a collaborative system and approach to the current limitations of the work methods and need to support track and achieve the revision work It is better to diversify MRF products to avoid the limitations of current exports CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION MRF has been the potential market leader and the trend setter in the tyre industry for the last 21 years inspite of the emergence of competitors and their competition. The company has a considerable lead over the arch rivals in the tyre market but has a stiff competition from the other global players. The clinical performance of the company is only because of the combined efforts of management and its employees. MRF has been successful in providing high quality and technology superior products to the customers. Being driven by technology and product innovation, every tyre that comes out is of the highest standards and tested to the toughest conditions to take on any role. Hence it is clearly visible that the company is in the forefront of the tyre industry and hope that it is going to continue the same impact in each segment of the tyre industry for a long time. The organizational study at MRF Limited, Kottayam, which helped me in gaining awareness of the functioning of different dep artment in the unit and give an outlook of the various modes of work being performed at managerial level, middle level and at the bottom level of the organization. The study has helped me to get a clear picture of the objectives and policies of the company and the mission of MRF and that is to maintain market leadership in the long run.

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation